126 l © 2025 American Dental Association
Fluoridation Facts
406. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Social determinants of health (SDOH). Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/
about/priorities/why-is-addressing-sdoh-important.html#:~:text=Social%20determinants%20of%20health%20(SDOH)%20are%20the%20
nonmedical%20factors%20that,foods%20and%20physical%20health%20opportunities.
407. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Oral Health in America: Advances and Challenges. Oral Health in America: Advances
and Challenges. Bethesda (MD) 2021.
408. Oral Health Foundation. Oral health and socioeconomic inequalities. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.dentalhealth.org/Blog/oral-
health-and-socioeconomic-inequalities.
409. Cho HJ, Lee HS, Paik DI, Bae KH. Association of dental caries with socioeconomic status in relation to different water fluoridation levels.
Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2014 42(6):536–542.
410. McGrady MG, Ellwood RP, Maguire A, et al. The association between social deprivation and the prevalence and severity of dental caries and
fluorosis in populations with and without water fluoridation. BMC Public Health. 2012 12(1):1122.
411. Jones CM, Worthington H. Water fluoridation, poverty and tooth decay in 12-year-old children. J Dent. 2000 28(6):389–393.
412. Provart SJ, Carmichael CL. The relationship between caries, fluoridation and material deprivation in five-year-old children in country Durham.
Community Dent Health. 1995 12(4):200–203.
413. Ellwood RP, O’Mullane DM. The association between area deprivation and dental caries in groups with and without fluoride in their drinking
water. Community Dent Health. 1995 12(1):18–22.
414. Matsuo G, Aida J, Osaka K, Rozier RG. Effects of community water fluoridation on dental caries disparities in adolescents. Int J Environ Res
Public Health. 2020 17(6).
415. Sanders AE, Grider WB, Maas WR, Curiel JA, Slade GD. Association between water fluoridation and income-related dental caries of US children
and adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2019 173(3):288–290.
416. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About community water fluoridation. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/
fluoridation/about/index.html#:~:text=Drinking%20fluoridated%20water%20keeps%20teeth,days%20of%20work%20and%20school.
417. Boehmer TJ, Lesaja S, Espinoza L, Ladva CN. Community water fluoridation levels to promote effectiveness and safety in oral health -
United States, 2016–2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 72(22):593–596.
418. McLaren L, Petit R. Universal and targeted policy to achieve health equity: a critical analysis of the example of community water fluoridation
cessation in Calgary, Canada in 2011. Crit Public Health. 2017 28(2):153–164.
419. National Dental Association. About NDA. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://ndaonline.org/about-nda/.
420. National Dental Association. Position on water fluoridation. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://ndaonline.org/position-on-water-fluoridation/.
421. Hagan JF, Jr., Shaw JS, Duncan PM. Bright futures: guidelines for health supervision of infants, children, and adolescents. 4th ed. Elk Grove
Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics 2017.
422. American Academy of Pediatrics. Fluoridation. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/oral-health/
fluoridation/#:~:text=Tooth%20decay%2C%20which%20is%20almost,to%20help%20prevent%20tooth%20decay.
423. American Medical Association. About (the AMA). Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.ama-assn.org/about.
424. McKay FS. The fluoridation of public water supplies. Ann Dent. 1951 10(3):87-89.
425. American Public Health Association. About APHA. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.apha.org/about-apha.
426. American Public Health Association. Policy 5005. Fluoridation of public water supplies (archived). 1950. Accessed March 20, 2025.
https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database.
427. World Health Organization. About WHO. 2025. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.who.int/about.
428. World Health Organization. Resolution adopted by 22nd World Health Assembly, July 1969: fluoridation and dental health. Int Symp Fluorid
Prev Dent. 1969:99–100.
429. World Health Organization. Fluorides and oral health. Report of a WHO expert committee on oral health status and fluoride use.
World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1994 846:1–37.
430. Petersen PE, Lennon MA. Effective use of fluorides for the prevention of dental caries in the 21st century: the WHO approach.
Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32(5):319–321.
431. Petersen PE. World Health Organization global policy for improvement of oral health--World Health Assembly 2007. Int Dent J.
2008 58(3):115–121.
432. Wurzburg J. Community water fluoridation around the nation: significant case law and legislation (vol. 7, iss. 1). 2013. Accessed March 21,
2025. https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=hlp
433. Safe Water Assn, Inc. v. City of Fond Du Lac. Wisconsin Court of Appeals 1994. Accessed May 13, 2025. https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/
safe-water-ass-n-893274919.
434. Block LE. Antifluoridationists persist: the constitutional basis for fluoridation. J Public Health Dent. 1986 46(4):188–198.
435. Christoffel T. Fluorides, facts and fanatics: public health advocacy shouldn’t stop at the courthouse door. Am J Public Health.
1985 75(8):888–891.
436. McMenamin JP. Fluoridation of water in Virginia: the tempest in the teapot. J Law Ethics Dent. 1988 1(1):42–46.
437. Roemer R. Water fluoridation: public health responsibility and the democratic process. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1965 55(9):1337–
1348.
438. Strong GA. Liberty, religion, and fluoridation. J Am Dent Assoc. 1968 76(6):1398–1409.
439. US Environmental Protection Agency. Support documents for fluoride chemicals in drinking water section 21 petition. 2016. Accessed March
20, 2025. https://www.epa.gov/petitions/support-documents-fluoride-chemicals-drinking-water-section-21-petition.
Fluoridation Facts
406. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Social determinants of health (SDOH). Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/
about/priorities/why-is-addressing-sdoh-important.html#:~:text=Social%20determinants%20of%20health%20(SDOH)%20are%20the%20
nonmedical%20factors%20that,foods%20and%20physical%20health%20opportunities.
407. National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research. Oral Health in America: Advances and Challenges. Oral Health in America: Advances
and Challenges. Bethesda (MD) 2021.
408. Oral Health Foundation. Oral health and socioeconomic inequalities. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.dentalhealth.org/Blog/oral-
health-and-socioeconomic-inequalities.
409. Cho HJ, Lee HS, Paik DI, Bae KH. Association of dental caries with socioeconomic status in relation to different water fluoridation levels.
Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2014 42(6):536–542.
410. McGrady MG, Ellwood RP, Maguire A, et al. The association between social deprivation and the prevalence and severity of dental caries and
fluorosis in populations with and without water fluoridation. BMC Public Health. 2012 12(1):1122.
411. Jones CM, Worthington H. Water fluoridation, poverty and tooth decay in 12-year-old children. J Dent. 2000 28(6):389–393.
412. Provart SJ, Carmichael CL. The relationship between caries, fluoridation and material deprivation in five-year-old children in country Durham.
Community Dent Health. 1995 12(4):200–203.
413. Ellwood RP, O’Mullane DM. The association between area deprivation and dental caries in groups with and without fluoride in their drinking
water. Community Dent Health. 1995 12(1):18–22.
414. Matsuo G, Aida J, Osaka K, Rozier RG. Effects of community water fluoridation on dental caries disparities in adolescents. Int J Environ Res
Public Health. 2020 17(6).
415. Sanders AE, Grider WB, Maas WR, Curiel JA, Slade GD. Association between water fluoridation and income-related dental caries of US children
and adolescents. JAMA Pediatr. 2019 173(3):288–290.
416. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About community water fluoridation. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/
fluoridation/about/index.html#:~:text=Drinking%20fluoridated%20water%20keeps%20teeth,days%20of%20work%20and%20school.
417. Boehmer TJ, Lesaja S, Espinoza L, Ladva CN. Community water fluoridation levels to promote effectiveness and safety in oral health -
United States, 2016–2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023 72(22):593–596.
418. McLaren L, Petit R. Universal and targeted policy to achieve health equity: a critical analysis of the example of community water fluoridation
cessation in Calgary, Canada in 2011. Crit Public Health. 2017 28(2):153–164.
419. National Dental Association. About NDA. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://ndaonline.org/about-nda/.
420. National Dental Association. Position on water fluoridation. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://ndaonline.org/position-on-water-fluoridation/.
421. Hagan JF, Jr., Shaw JS, Duncan PM. Bright futures: guidelines for health supervision of infants, children, and adolescents. 4th ed. Elk Grove
Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics 2017.
422. American Academy of Pediatrics. Fluoridation. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/oral-health/
fluoridation/#:~:text=Tooth%20decay%2C%20which%20is%20almost,to%20help%20prevent%20tooth%20decay.
423. American Medical Association. About (the AMA). Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.ama-assn.org/about.
424. McKay FS. The fluoridation of public water supplies. Ann Dent. 1951 10(3):87-89.
425. American Public Health Association. About APHA. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.apha.org/about-apha.
426. American Public Health Association. Policy 5005. Fluoridation of public water supplies (archived). 1950. Accessed March 20, 2025.
https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database.
427. World Health Organization. About WHO. 2025. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.who.int/about.
428. World Health Organization. Resolution adopted by 22nd World Health Assembly, July 1969: fluoridation and dental health. Int Symp Fluorid
Prev Dent. 1969:99–100.
429. World Health Organization. Fluorides and oral health. Report of a WHO expert committee on oral health status and fluoride use.
World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 1994 846:1–37.
430. Petersen PE, Lennon MA. Effective use of fluorides for the prevention of dental caries in the 21st century: the WHO approach.
Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32(5):319–321.
431. Petersen PE. World Health Organization global policy for improvement of oral health--World Health Assembly 2007. Int Dent J.
2008 58(3):115–121.
432. Wurzburg J. Community water fluoridation around the nation: significant case law and legislation (vol. 7, iss. 1). 2013. Accessed March 21,
2025. https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=hlp
433. Safe Water Assn, Inc. v. City of Fond Du Lac. Wisconsin Court of Appeals 1994. Accessed May 13, 2025. https://case-law.vlex.com/vid/
safe-water-ass-n-893274919.
434. Block LE. Antifluoridationists persist: the constitutional basis for fluoridation. J Public Health Dent. 1986 46(4):188–198.
435. Christoffel T. Fluorides, facts and fanatics: public health advocacy shouldn’t stop at the courthouse door. Am J Public Health.
1985 75(8):888–891.
436. McMenamin JP. Fluoridation of water in Virginia: the tempest in the teapot. J Law Ethics Dent. 1988 1(1):42–46.
437. Roemer R. Water fluoridation: public health responsibility and the democratic process. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1965 55(9):1337–
1348.
438. Strong GA. Liberty, religion, and fluoridation. J Am Dent Assoc. 1968 76(6):1398–1409.
439. US Environmental Protection Agency. Support documents for fluoride chemicals in drinking water section 21 petition. 2016. Accessed March
20, 2025. https://www.epa.gov/petitions/support-documents-fluoride-chemicals-drinking-water-section-21-petition.
