© 2025 American Dental Association l 121
References
234. Hillier S, Cooper C, Kellingray S, et al. Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK: a case-control study. Lancet.
2000 355(9200):265–269.
235. Phipps KR, Orwoll ES, Mason JD, Cauley JA. Community water fluoridation, bone mineral density, and fractures: prospective study of effects
in older women. BMJ. 2000 321(7265):860–864.
236. Massler M, Schour I. Atlas of the mouth in health and disease. 2nd ed. Chicago: American Dental Association 1982.
237. Lewis DW, Banting DW. Water fluoridation: current effectiveness and dental fluorosis. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1994 22(3):153–8.
238. Leverett D. Prevalence of dental fluorosis in fluoridated and non-fluoridated communities--a preliminary investigation. J Public Health Dent.
1986 46(4):184–187.
239. Pendrys DG, Katz RV, Morse DE. Risk factors for enamel fluorosis in a non-fluoridated population. Am J Epidemiol. 1996 143(8):808–815.
240. Pendrys DG, Stamm JW. Relationship of total fluoride intake to beneficial effects and enamel fluorosis. J Dent Res. 1990 69(Spec No):529-
538 discussion 56–7.
241. American Dental Association. Oral health topic: fluoride: topical and systemic supplements. Accessed January 25, 2025.
https://www.ada.org/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/fluoride-topical-and-systemic-supplements
242. Cochran JA, Ketley CE, Sanches L, et al. A standardized photographic method for evaluating enamel opacities including fluorosis. Community
Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32 Suppl 1(s1):19-27.
243. Cruz-Orcutt N, Warren JJ, Broffitt B, Levy SM, Weber-Gasparoni K. Examiner reliability of fluorosis scoring: a comparison of photographic
and clinical examination findings. J Public Health Dent. 2012 72(2):172–175.
244. Kumar JV, Swango PA, Opima PN, Green EL. Dean’s fluorosis index: an assessment of examiner reliability. J Public Health Dent.
2000 60(1):57–59.
245. Warren JJ, Levy SM. Measurement and distribution of dental fluorosis. In: Mascarenhas AK, Okunseri C, Dye BA, editors. Burt and Eklund’s
dentistry, dental practice and the community. 7th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier 2021.
246. National Center for Health Statistics National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Data quality evaluation of the
dental fluorosis clinical assessment data from the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999–2004 and 2011–2016. National
Center for Health Statistics 2019. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_02/sr02_183-508.pdf.
247. Heller KE, Eklund SA, Burt BA. Dental caries and dental fluorosis at varying water fluoride concentrations. J Public Health Dent.
1997 57(3):136–143.
248. Curtis AM, Levy SM, Cavanaugh JE, et al. Decline in dental fluorosis severity during adolescence: a cohort study. J Dent Res.
2020 99(4):388–394.
249. Levy SM, Warren JJ, Kolker JL, Weber-Gasparoni K. Generalized permanent dentition fluorosis severity becomes less evident over time among
a birth cohort. Front Oral Health. 2023 4:1198167.
250. Wong HM, Wen YF, King NM, McGrath CP. Longitudinal changes in developmental defects of enamel. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.
2016 44(3):255–262.
251. Do LG, Ha DH, Spencer AJ. Natural history and long-term impact of dental fluorosis: a prospective cohort study. Med J Aust. 2016 204(1):25.
252. Aasenden R, Peebles TC. Effects of fluoride supplementation from birth on dental caries and fluorosis in teenaged children. Arch Oral Biol.
1978 23(2):111–115.
253. Iida H, Kumar JV. The association between enamel fluorosis and dental caries in US schoolchildren. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(7):855–862.
254. Chankanka O, Levy SM, Warren JJ, Chalmers JM. A literature review of aesthetic perceptions of dental fluorosis and relationships with
psychosocial aspects/oral health-related quality of life. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2010 38(2):97–109.
255. Do LG, Spencer A. Oral health-related quality of life of children by dental caries and fluorosis experience. J Public Health Dent.
2007 67(3):132–139.
256. Akuno MH, Nocella G, Milia EP, Gutierrez L. Factors influencing the relationship between fluoride in drinking water and dental fluorosis:
a ten-year systematic review and meta-analysis. J Water Health. 2019 17(6):845–862.
257. Revelo-Mejia IA, Hardisson A, Rubio C, Gutierrez AJ, Paz S. Dental fluorosis: the risk of misdiagnosis-a review. Biol Trace Elem Res.
2021 199(5):1762–1770.
258. Berg J, Gerweck C, Hujoel PP, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations regarding fluoride intake from reconstituted infant formula and
enamel fluorosis: a report of the American dental association council on scientific affairs. J Am Dent Assoc. 2011 142(1):79–87.
259. American Academy of Pediatrics. Infant food and feeding. 2023. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/healthy-
active-living-for-families/infant-food-and-feeding.
260. Celeste RK, Luz PB. Independent and Additive Effects of Different Sources of Fluoride and Dental Fluorosis. Pediatr Dent. 2016 38(3):233–238.
261. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant formula preparation and storage. 2024. Accessed March 24, 2025.
https://www.cdc.gov/infant-toddler-nutrition/formula-feeding/preparation-and-storage.html.
262. American Public Health Association. Community water fluoridation in the United States. 2008. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.apha.
org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/24/13/36/community-water-fluoridation-in-the-
united-states.
263. New York State Department of Health. Guidance for use of fluoridated water for feeding during infancy. 2011. Accessed March 21, 2025.
https://www.health.ny.gov/prevention/dental/fluoride_guidance_during_infancy.htm.
264. Thornton-Evans G, Junger ML, Lin M, et al. Use of toothpaste and toothbrushing patterns among children and adolescents – United States,
2013-2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019 68(4):87–90.
265. Pendrys DG. Risk of enamel fluorosis in non-fluoridated and optimally fluoridated populations: considerations for the dental professional.
J Am Dent Assoc. 2000 131(6):746–755.
266. Ismail AI, Hasson H. Fluoride supplements, dental caries and fluorosis: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008 139(11):1457–1468.
References
234. Hillier S, Cooper C, Kellingray S, et al. Fluoride in drinking water and risk of hip fracture in the UK: a case-control study. Lancet.
2000 355(9200):265–269.
235. Phipps KR, Orwoll ES, Mason JD, Cauley JA. Community water fluoridation, bone mineral density, and fractures: prospective study of effects
in older women. BMJ. 2000 321(7265):860–864.
236. Massler M, Schour I. Atlas of the mouth in health and disease. 2nd ed. Chicago: American Dental Association 1982.
237. Lewis DW, Banting DW. Water fluoridation: current effectiveness and dental fluorosis. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 1994 22(3):153–8.
238. Leverett D. Prevalence of dental fluorosis in fluoridated and non-fluoridated communities--a preliminary investigation. J Public Health Dent.
1986 46(4):184–187.
239. Pendrys DG, Katz RV, Morse DE. Risk factors for enamel fluorosis in a non-fluoridated population. Am J Epidemiol. 1996 143(8):808–815.
240. Pendrys DG, Stamm JW. Relationship of total fluoride intake to beneficial effects and enamel fluorosis. J Dent Res. 1990 69(Spec No):529-
538 discussion 56–7.
241. American Dental Association. Oral health topic: fluoride: topical and systemic supplements. Accessed January 25, 2025.
https://www.ada.org/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/fluoride-topical-and-systemic-supplements
242. Cochran JA, Ketley CE, Sanches L, et al. A standardized photographic method for evaluating enamel opacities including fluorosis. Community
Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32 Suppl 1(s1):19-27.
243. Cruz-Orcutt N, Warren JJ, Broffitt B, Levy SM, Weber-Gasparoni K. Examiner reliability of fluorosis scoring: a comparison of photographic
and clinical examination findings. J Public Health Dent. 2012 72(2):172–175.
244. Kumar JV, Swango PA, Opima PN, Green EL. Dean’s fluorosis index: an assessment of examiner reliability. J Public Health Dent.
2000 60(1):57–59.
245. Warren JJ, Levy SM. Measurement and distribution of dental fluorosis. In: Mascarenhas AK, Okunseri C, Dye BA, editors. Burt and Eklund’s
dentistry, dental practice and the community. 7th ed. St. Louis: Elsevier 2021.
246. National Center for Health Statistics National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Data quality evaluation of the
dental fluorosis clinical assessment data from the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999–2004 and 2011–2016. National
Center for Health Statistics 2019. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_02/sr02_183-508.pdf.
247. Heller KE, Eklund SA, Burt BA. Dental caries and dental fluorosis at varying water fluoride concentrations. J Public Health Dent.
1997 57(3):136–143.
248. Curtis AM, Levy SM, Cavanaugh JE, et al. Decline in dental fluorosis severity during adolescence: a cohort study. J Dent Res.
2020 99(4):388–394.
249. Levy SM, Warren JJ, Kolker JL, Weber-Gasparoni K. Generalized permanent dentition fluorosis severity becomes less evident over time among
a birth cohort. Front Oral Health. 2023 4:1198167.
250. Wong HM, Wen YF, King NM, McGrath CP. Longitudinal changes in developmental defects of enamel. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.
2016 44(3):255–262.
251. Do LG, Ha DH, Spencer AJ. Natural history and long-term impact of dental fluorosis: a prospective cohort study. Med J Aust. 2016 204(1):25.
252. Aasenden R, Peebles TC. Effects of fluoride supplementation from birth on dental caries and fluorosis in teenaged children. Arch Oral Biol.
1978 23(2):111–115.
253. Iida H, Kumar JV. The association between enamel fluorosis and dental caries in US schoolchildren. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(7):855–862.
254. Chankanka O, Levy SM, Warren JJ, Chalmers JM. A literature review of aesthetic perceptions of dental fluorosis and relationships with
psychosocial aspects/oral health-related quality of life. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2010 38(2):97–109.
255. Do LG, Spencer A. Oral health-related quality of life of children by dental caries and fluorosis experience. J Public Health Dent.
2007 67(3):132–139.
256. Akuno MH, Nocella G, Milia EP, Gutierrez L. Factors influencing the relationship between fluoride in drinking water and dental fluorosis:
a ten-year systematic review and meta-analysis. J Water Health. 2019 17(6):845–862.
257. Revelo-Mejia IA, Hardisson A, Rubio C, Gutierrez AJ, Paz S. Dental fluorosis: the risk of misdiagnosis-a review. Biol Trace Elem Res.
2021 199(5):1762–1770.
258. Berg J, Gerweck C, Hujoel PP, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations regarding fluoride intake from reconstituted infant formula and
enamel fluorosis: a report of the American dental association council on scientific affairs. J Am Dent Assoc. 2011 142(1):79–87.
259. American Academy of Pediatrics. Infant food and feeding. 2023. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.aap.org/en/patient-care/healthy-
active-living-for-families/infant-food-and-feeding.
260. Celeste RK, Luz PB. Independent and Additive Effects of Different Sources of Fluoride and Dental Fluorosis. Pediatr Dent. 2016 38(3):233–238.
261. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant formula preparation and storage. 2024. Accessed March 24, 2025.
https://www.cdc.gov/infant-toddler-nutrition/formula-feeding/preparation-and-storage.html.
262. American Public Health Association. Community water fluoridation in the United States. 2008. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.apha.
org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/24/13/36/community-water-fluoridation-in-the-
united-states.
263. New York State Department of Health. Guidance for use of fluoridated water for feeding during infancy. 2011. Accessed March 21, 2025.
https://www.health.ny.gov/prevention/dental/fluoride_guidance_during_infancy.htm.
264. Thornton-Evans G, Junger ML, Lin M, et al. Use of toothpaste and toothbrushing patterns among children and adolescents – United States,
2013-2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019 68(4):87–90.
265. Pendrys DG. Risk of enamel fluorosis in non-fluoridated and optimally fluoridated populations: considerations for the dental professional.
J Am Dent Assoc. 2000 131(6):746–755.
266. Ismail AI, Hasson H. Fluoride supplements, dental caries and fluorosis: a systematic review. J Am Dent Assoc. 2008 139(11):1457–1468.
