116 l © 2025 American Dental Association
Fluoridation Facts
65. American Dental Association Council on Access Prevention and Interprofessional Relations. Caries diagnosis and risk assessment.
A review of preventive strategies and management. J Am Dent Assoc. 1995 126(Suppl):1S-24S.
66. Mariri BP, Levy SM, Warren JJ, et al. Medically administered antibiotics, dietary habits, fluoride intake and dental caries experience in the
primary dentition. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2003 31(1):40–51.
67. Dye BA, Shenkin JD, Ogden CL, et al. The relationship between healthful eating practices and dental caries in children aged 2–5 years in the
United States, 1988–1994. J Am Dent Assoc. 2004 135(1):55–66.
68. Tinanoff N, Palmer CA. Dietary determinants of dental caries and dietary recommendations for preschool children.
J Public Health Dent. 2000 60(3):197–206 discussion 07–09.
69. Marshall TA. Chairside diet assessment of caries risk. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(6):670–674.
70. Jaccaud M, Faron R, Devilliers D, et al. Fluorine. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2020.
71. Peckham S, Awofeso N. Water fluoridation: a critical review of the physiological effects of ingested fluoride as a public health intervention.
Sci World J. 2014 2014:293019.
72. Edmunds WM, Smedley PL. Fluoride in Natural Waters. In: Essentials of Medical Geology. Selinus O, Alloway B, Centeno JA, Finkelman RB,
Fuge R, Lindh U, Smedley PL, editors. 2nd ed. Springer. pp. 311–336. 2013.
73. City of Chicago. Department of Water Management. Bureau of Water Supply. Water Quality Division-Water Purification Laboratories.
Comprehensive Chemical Analysis Reports for 2023 Q1–Q3. 2023. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.chicago.gov/content/dam/city/
depts/water/WaterQltyResultsNRpts/ccReports/CompChem_2023_Q1-Q3.pdf.
74. Lambrou D, Larsen MJ, Fejerskov O, Tachos B. The effect of fluoride in saliva on remineralization of dental enamel in humans. Caries Res.
1981 15(5):341–345.
75. Rozier RG, Adair S, Graham F, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations on the prescription of dietary fluoride supplements for caries
prevention: a report of the American dental association council on scientific affairs. J Am Dent Assoc. 2010 141(12):1480–1489.
76. Zero DT, Fontana M, Martinez-Mier EA, et al. The biology, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of dental caries:
scientific advances in the United States. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(Suppl 1):25S-34S.
77. Cho HJ, Jin BH, Park DY, et al. Systemic effect of water fluoridation on dental caries prevalence. Community Dent
Oral Epidemiol. 2014 42(4):341–348.
78. Newbrun E. Systemic benefits of fluoride and fluoridation. J Public Health Dent. 2004 64(s1):35–39.
79. Singh KA, Spencer AJ, Armfield JM. Relative effects of pre- and posteruption water fluoride on caries experience of permanent first molars.
J Public Health Dent. 2003 63(1):11–19.
80. Hargreaves JA. The level and timing of systemic exposure to fluoride with respect to caries resistance. J Dent Res. 1992 71(5):1244–1248.
81. Groeneveld A, Van Eck AA, Backer Dirks O. Fluoride in caries prevention: is the effect pre- or post-eruptive?
J Dent Res. 1990 69 Spec No(2_suppl):751–755 discussion 820–3.
82. Singh KA, Spencer AJ. Relative effects of pre- and post-eruption water fluoride on caries experience by surface type of permanent first
molars. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32(6):435–446.
83. Singh KA, Spencer AJ, Brennan DS. Effects of water fluoride exposure at crown completion and maturation on caries of permanent first
molars. Caries Res. 2007 41(1):34–42.
84. United States Environmental Protection Agency. CCR information for consumers. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.epa.gov/ccr/ccr-
information-consumers#:~:text=EPA%20requires%20community%20water%20systems,their%20local%20drinking%20water%20quality.
85. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Find your local CCR. Accessed January 15, 2025. https://ordspub.epa.gov/ords/safewater/
f?p=136:102.
86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. My water’s fluoride. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://nccd.cdc.gov/DOH_MWF/Default/
Default.aspx.
87. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Private drinking water wells. Accessed January 15, 2025.
https://www.epa.gov/privatewells.
88. Maier FJ. Manual of Water Fluoridation Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1963.
89. Duchon K. Know the basics of water fluoridation additive products. Opflow. 2020 46(10):16–18.
90. NSF. Fluoridation products and fluoride. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/articles/fluoridation-products-
guide.
91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fluoridation engineering and operations. Accessed March 24, 2025.
https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation-engineering/index.html.
92. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians. Atlanta, GA: 1986.
Accessed March 25, 2025. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/13103.
93. Whitford GM, Sampaio FC, Pinto CS, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ingested fluoride: lack of effect of chemical compound. Arch Oral Biol.
2008 53(11):1037–1041.
94. Dean, HT. Fluorine and Dental Health. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication No. 19 1942.
95. Cochrane Library. About cochrane reviews. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/about/about-cochrane-reviews.
96. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). NHMRC public statement 2017. Canberra, Australia. Accessed May 13, 2025.
https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/2017-public-statement-water-fluoridation-and-human-health#block-views-block-file-
attachments-content-block-1.
97. Community Preventive Services Task Force (CPSTF). About the community guide. usa.gov. Accessed March 21, 2025.
https://www.thecommunityguide.org/pages/about-community-guide.html.
Fluoridation Facts
65. American Dental Association Council on Access Prevention and Interprofessional Relations. Caries diagnosis and risk assessment.
A review of preventive strategies and management. J Am Dent Assoc. 1995 126(Suppl):1S-24S.
66. Mariri BP, Levy SM, Warren JJ, et al. Medically administered antibiotics, dietary habits, fluoride intake and dental caries experience in the
primary dentition. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2003 31(1):40–51.
67. Dye BA, Shenkin JD, Ogden CL, et al. The relationship between healthful eating practices and dental caries in children aged 2–5 years in the
United States, 1988–1994. J Am Dent Assoc. 2004 135(1):55–66.
68. Tinanoff N, Palmer CA. Dietary determinants of dental caries and dietary recommendations for preschool children.
J Public Health Dent. 2000 60(3):197–206 discussion 07–09.
69. Marshall TA. Chairside diet assessment of caries risk. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(6):670–674.
70. Jaccaud M, Faron R, Devilliers D, et al. Fluorine. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2020.
71. Peckham S, Awofeso N. Water fluoridation: a critical review of the physiological effects of ingested fluoride as a public health intervention.
Sci World J. 2014 2014:293019.
72. Edmunds WM, Smedley PL. Fluoride in Natural Waters. In: Essentials of Medical Geology. Selinus O, Alloway B, Centeno JA, Finkelman RB,
Fuge R, Lindh U, Smedley PL, editors. 2nd ed. Springer. pp. 311–336. 2013.
73. City of Chicago. Department of Water Management. Bureau of Water Supply. Water Quality Division-Water Purification Laboratories.
Comprehensive Chemical Analysis Reports for 2023 Q1–Q3. 2023. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.chicago.gov/content/dam/city/
depts/water/WaterQltyResultsNRpts/ccReports/CompChem_2023_Q1-Q3.pdf.
74. Lambrou D, Larsen MJ, Fejerskov O, Tachos B. The effect of fluoride in saliva on remineralization of dental enamel in humans. Caries Res.
1981 15(5):341–345.
75. Rozier RG, Adair S, Graham F, et al. Evidence-based clinical recommendations on the prescription of dietary fluoride supplements for caries
prevention: a report of the American dental association council on scientific affairs. J Am Dent Assoc. 2010 141(12):1480–1489.
76. Zero DT, Fontana M, Martinez-Mier EA, et al. The biology, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of dental caries:
scientific advances in the United States. J Am Dent Assoc. 2009 140(Suppl 1):25S-34S.
77. Cho HJ, Jin BH, Park DY, et al. Systemic effect of water fluoridation on dental caries prevalence. Community Dent
Oral Epidemiol. 2014 42(4):341–348.
78. Newbrun E. Systemic benefits of fluoride and fluoridation. J Public Health Dent. 2004 64(s1):35–39.
79. Singh KA, Spencer AJ, Armfield JM. Relative effects of pre- and posteruption water fluoride on caries experience of permanent first molars.
J Public Health Dent. 2003 63(1):11–19.
80. Hargreaves JA. The level and timing of systemic exposure to fluoride with respect to caries resistance. J Dent Res. 1992 71(5):1244–1248.
81. Groeneveld A, Van Eck AA, Backer Dirks O. Fluoride in caries prevention: is the effect pre- or post-eruptive?
J Dent Res. 1990 69 Spec No(2_suppl):751–755 discussion 820–3.
82. Singh KA, Spencer AJ. Relative effects of pre- and post-eruption water fluoride on caries experience by surface type of permanent first
molars. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. 2004 32(6):435–446.
83. Singh KA, Spencer AJ, Brennan DS. Effects of water fluoride exposure at crown completion and maturation on caries of permanent first
molars. Caries Res. 2007 41(1):34–42.
84. United States Environmental Protection Agency. CCR information for consumers. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.epa.gov/ccr/ccr-
information-consumers#:~:text=EPA%20requires%20community%20water%20systems,their%20local%20drinking%20water%20quality.
85. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Find your local CCR. Accessed January 15, 2025. https://ordspub.epa.gov/ords/safewater/
f?p=136:102.
86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. My water’s fluoride. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://nccd.cdc.gov/DOH_MWF/Default/
Default.aspx.
87. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Private drinking water wells. Accessed January 15, 2025.
https://www.epa.gov/privatewells.
88. Maier FJ. Manual of Water Fluoridation Practice. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1963.
89. Duchon K. Know the basics of water fluoridation additive products. Opflow. 2020 46(10):16–18.
90. NSF. Fluoridation products and fluoride. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.nsf.org/consumer-resources/articles/fluoridation-products-
guide.
91. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fluoridation engineering and operations. Accessed March 24, 2025.
https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation-engineering/index.html.
92. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians. Atlanta, GA: 1986.
Accessed March 25, 2025. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/13103.
93. Whitford GM, Sampaio FC, Pinto CS, et al. Pharmacokinetics of ingested fluoride: lack of effect of chemical compound. Arch Oral Biol.
2008 53(11):1037–1041.
94. Dean, HT. Fluorine and Dental Health. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Publication No. 19 1942.
95. Cochrane Library. About cochrane reviews. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/about/about-cochrane-reviews.
96. National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC). NHMRC public statement 2017. Canberra, Australia. Accessed May 13, 2025.
https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/2017-public-statement-water-fluoridation-and-human-health#block-views-block-file-
attachments-content-block-1.
97. Community Preventive Services Task Force (CPSTF). About the community guide. usa.gov. Accessed March 21, 2025.
https://www.thecommunityguide.org/pages/about-community-guide.html.
