122 l © 2025 American Dental Association
Fluoridation Facts
267. American Dental Association. MouthHealthy: mouthwash. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.mouthhealthy.org/all-topics-a-z/
mouthwash.
268. Kassem TF, Fadhil Z, Anderson M. Extended caries prevention programme with biannual application of fluoride varnish for toddlers: prevalence
of dental fluorosis at ages 7–9 years and associated factors. Acta Odontol Scand. 2023 81(5):368–373.
269. Do LG, Ha DH, Roberts-Thomson KF, Spencer AJ. Dental fluorosis in the Australian adult population. Aust Dent J. 2020 65 Suppl 1(S1):S47–
S51.
270. Rojanaworarit C, Orellana S, Siramahamongkol A, Ngernthong P, Photisan N. The Protective effect of breastfeeding on dental fluorosis among
children in rural fluoride-endemic areas. Breastfeed Med. 2023 18(7):540–548.
271. Harriehausen CX, Dosani FZ, Chiquet BT, Barratt MS, Quock RL. Fluoride intake of infants from formula. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2019 43(1):34–
41.
272. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 330.1. General conditions for general recognition as
safe, effective and not misbranded. Code of Federal Regulations. National Archives 2004.
273. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 330.5. Drug Categories. Code of Federal Regulations.
National Archives 2004.
274. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 355.50. Labeling of anticaries drug products.
Code of Federal Regulations. National Archives 2004.
275. Whitford GM. Acute toxicity of ingested fluoride. Monogr Oral Sci. 2011 22:66–80.
276. Stevenson CA, Watson AR. Fluoride osteosclerosis. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1957 78(1):13–18.
277. Hodge HC. The safety of fluoride tablets or drops. In: Johansen E, Tavaes DR, Olsen TO, editors. Continuing evaluation of the use of fluorides.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1979. p. 253–275.
278. Hoover RN, McKay FW, Fraumeni JF, Jr. Fluoridated drinking water and the occurrence of cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1976 57(4):757–768.
279. Erickson JD. Mortality in selected cities with fluoridated and non-fluoridated water supplies. N Engl J Med. 1978 298(20):1112–1116.
280. Rogot E, Sharrett AR, Feinleib M, Fabsitz RR. Trends in urban mortality in relation to fluoridation status. Am J Epidemiol. 1978 107(2):104–112.
281. Chilvers C. Cancer mortality and fluoridation of water supplies in 35 US cities. Int J Epidemiol. 1983 12(4):397–404.
282. Mahoney MC, Nasca PC, Burnett WS, Melius JM. Bone cancer incidence rates in New York State: time trends and fluoridated drinking water.
Am J Public Health. 1991 81(4):475–479.
283. Cohn PD New Jersey Department of Health New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy. An epidemiologic report on
drinking water and fluoridation. Trenton, NJ 1992.
284. Tohyama E. Relationship between fluoride concentration in drinking water and mortality rate from uterine cancer in Okinawa prefecture,
Japan. J Epidemiol. 1996 6(4):184-191.
285. Kinlen L. Cancer incidence in relation to fluoride level in water supplies. Br Dent J. 1975 138(6):221–224.
286. Chilvers C, Conway D. Cancer mortality in England in relation to levels of naturally occurring fluoride in water supplies. J Epidemiol Community
Health. 1985 39(1):44-47.
287. Cook-Mozaffari P, Bulusu L, Doll R. Fluoridation of water supplies and cancer mortality. I: A search for an effect in the UK on risk of death
from cancer. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1981 35(4):227–232.
288. Canada. Environmental Health Directorate. Fluoridation and cancer: an analysis of Canadian drinking water fluoridation and cancer mortality
data. Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada 1977.
289. Richards GA, Ford JM. Cancer mortality in selected New South Wales localities with fluoridated and non-fluoridated water supplies.
Med J Aust. 1979 2(10):521–523.
290. World Health Organization. IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Vol. 27. IARC Publications
1982.
291. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). About proposition 65. Accessed January 25, 2025.
https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/about-proposition-65.
292. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). Meeting synopsis and slide presentations carcinogen identification
committee meeting held on October 12, 2011. 2011. https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/transcript-comment-presentation/meeting-
synopsis-and-slide-presentations-carcinogen-identification-committee-meeting-held-october-12.
293. American Cancer Society. Water fluoridation and cancer risk. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/
chemicals/water-fluoridation-and-cancer-risk.html.
294. National Cancer Institute. General information about osteosarcoma and undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma (UPS) (formerly called
malignant fibrous histiocytoma [mfh]) of bone. cancer.gov. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/types/bone/hp/
osteosarcoma-treatment-pdq#_1.
295. Blakey K, Feltbower RG, Parslow RC, et al. Is fluoride a risk factor for bone cancer? small area analysis of osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma
diagnosed among 0–49-year-olds in Great Britain, 1980-2005. Int J Epidemiol. 2014 43(1):224–234.
296. Beltran-Aguilar ED, Barker L, Sohn W, Wei L. Water intake by outdoor temperature among children aged 1-10 years: implications for
community water fluoridation in the US. Public Health Rep. 2015 130(4):362–371.
297. Kaminsky LS, Mahoney MC, Leach J, Melius J, Miller MJ. Fluoride: benefits and risks of exposure. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1990 1(4):261–281.
298. Jenkins GN, Venkateswarlu P, Zipkin I. Physiological effects of small doses of fluoride. Monogr Ser World Health Organ. 1970 59:163–223.
299. Hodge HC, Smith FA. Biological properties of inorganic fluorides. In: Simons HH, editor. Fluorine chemistry. New York, NY: Academic Press
1965. p. 1–42.
Fluoridation Facts
267. American Dental Association. MouthHealthy: mouthwash. Accessed March 20, 2025. https://www.mouthhealthy.org/all-topics-a-z/
mouthwash.
268. Kassem TF, Fadhil Z, Anderson M. Extended caries prevention programme with biannual application of fluoride varnish for toddlers: prevalence
of dental fluorosis at ages 7–9 years and associated factors. Acta Odontol Scand. 2023 81(5):368–373.
269. Do LG, Ha DH, Roberts-Thomson KF, Spencer AJ. Dental fluorosis in the Australian adult population. Aust Dent J. 2020 65 Suppl 1(S1):S47–
S51.
270. Rojanaworarit C, Orellana S, Siramahamongkol A, Ngernthong P, Photisan N. The Protective effect of breastfeeding on dental fluorosis among
children in rural fluoride-endemic areas. Breastfeed Med. 2023 18(7):540–548.
271. Harriehausen CX, Dosani FZ, Chiquet BT, Barratt MS, Quock RL. Fluoride intake of infants from formula. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2019 43(1):34–
41.
272. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 330.1. General conditions for general recognition as
safe, effective and not misbranded. Code of Federal Regulations. National Archives 2004.
273. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 330.5. Drug Categories. Code of Federal Regulations.
National Archives 2004.
274. US Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration. 21 CFR 355.50. Labeling of anticaries drug products.
Code of Federal Regulations. National Archives 2004.
275. Whitford GM. Acute toxicity of ingested fluoride. Monogr Oral Sci. 2011 22:66–80.
276. Stevenson CA, Watson AR. Fluoride osteosclerosis. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1957 78(1):13–18.
277. Hodge HC. The safety of fluoride tablets or drops. In: Johansen E, Tavaes DR, Olsen TO, editors. Continuing evaluation of the use of fluorides.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press 1979. p. 253–275.
278. Hoover RN, McKay FW, Fraumeni JF, Jr. Fluoridated drinking water and the occurrence of cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1976 57(4):757–768.
279. Erickson JD. Mortality in selected cities with fluoridated and non-fluoridated water supplies. N Engl J Med. 1978 298(20):1112–1116.
280. Rogot E, Sharrett AR, Feinleib M, Fabsitz RR. Trends in urban mortality in relation to fluoridation status. Am J Epidemiol. 1978 107(2):104–112.
281. Chilvers C. Cancer mortality and fluoridation of water supplies in 35 US cities. Int J Epidemiol. 1983 12(4):397–404.
282. Mahoney MC, Nasca PC, Burnett WS, Melius JM. Bone cancer incidence rates in New York State: time trends and fluoridated drinking water.
Am J Public Health. 1991 81(4):475–479.
283. Cohn PD New Jersey Department of Health New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy. An epidemiologic report on
drinking water and fluoridation. Trenton, NJ 1992.
284. Tohyama E. Relationship between fluoride concentration in drinking water and mortality rate from uterine cancer in Okinawa prefecture,
Japan. J Epidemiol. 1996 6(4):184-191.
285. Kinlen L. Cancer incidence in relation to fluoride level in water supplies. Br Dent J. 1975 138(6):221–224.
286. Chilvers C, Conway D. Cancer mortality in England in relation to levels of naturally occurring fluoride in water supplies. J Epidemiol Community
Health. 1985 39(1):44-47.
287. Cook-Mozaffari P, Bulusu L, Doll R. Fluoridation of water supplies and cancer mortality. I: A search for an effect in the UK on risk of death
from cancer. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1981 35(4):227–232.
288. Canada. Environmental Health Directorate. Fluoridation and cancer: an analysis of Canadian drinking water fluoridation and cancer mortality
data. Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada 1977.
289. Richards GA, Ford JM. Cancer mortality in selected New South Wales localities with fluoridated and non-fluoridated water supplies.
Med J Aust. 1979 2(10):521–523.
290. World Health Organization. IARC monographs on the evaluation of the carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Vol. 27. IARC Publications
1982.
291. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). About proposition 65. Accessed January 25, 2025.
https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/about-proposition-65.
292. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). Meeting synopsis and slide presentations carcinogen identification
committee meeting held on October 12, 2011. 2011. https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/transcript-comment-presentation/meeting-
synopsis-and-slide-presentations-carcinogen-identification-committee-meeting-held-october-12.
293. American Cancer Society. Water fluoridation and cancer risk. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/risk-prevention/
chemicals/water-fluoridation-and-cancer-risk.html.
294. National Cancer Institute. General information about osteosarcoma and undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma (UPS) (formerly called
malignant fibrous histiocytoma [mfh]) of bone. cancer.gov. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.cancer.gov/types/bone/hp/
osteosarcoma-treatment-pdq#_1.
295. Blakey K, Feltbower RG, Parslow RC, et al. Is fluoride a risk factor for bone cancer? small area analysis of osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma
diagnosed among 0–49-year-olds in Great Britain, 1980-2005. Int J Epidemiol. 2014 43(1):224–234.
296. Beltran-Aguilar ED, Barker L, Sohn W, Wei L. Water intake by outdoor temperature among children aged 1-10 years: implications for
community water fluoridation in the US. Public Health Rep. 2015 130(4):362–371.
297. Kaminsky LS, Mahoney MC, Leach J, Melius J, Miller MJ. Fluoride: benefits and risks of exposure. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1990 1(4):261–281.
298. Jenkins GN, Venkateswarlu P, Zipkin I. Physiological effects of small doses of fluoride. Monogr Ser World Health Organ. 1970 59:163–223.
299. Hodge HC, Smith FA. Biological properties of inorganic fluorides. In: Simons HH, editor. Fluorine chemistry. New York, NY: Academic Press
1965. p. 1–42.
