© 2025 American Dental Association l 123
References
300. Iamandii I, De Pasquale L, Giannone ME, et al. Does fluoride exposure affect thyroid function? A systematic review and dose-response
meta-analysis. Environ Res. 2024 242:117759.
301. National Toxicology Program. NTP monograph on the state of the science concerning fluoride exposure and neurodevelopment and cognition:
a systematic review. NTP Monogr. 2024 Aug (8):NTP-MGRAPH-8.
302. Haschek WM, Rousseaux CG. Handbook of toxicologic pathology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press 1991.
303. Griebel-Thompson AK, Sands S, Chollet-Hinton L, et al. A scoping review of iodine and fluoride in pregnancy in relation to maternal thyroid
function and offspring neurodevelopment. Adv Nutr. 2023 14(2):317–338.
304. Malin AJ, Riddell J, McCague H, Till C. Fluoride exposure and thyroid function among adults living in Canada: effect modification by iodine
status. Environ Int. 2018 121(Pt 1):667-674.
305. Goodman CV, Hall M, Green R, et al. Iodine status modifies the association between fluoride exposure in pregnancy and preschool boys’
intelligence. Nutrients. 2022 14(14):2920.
306. Warren JJ, Saraiva MC. No evidence supports the claim that water fluoridation causes hypothyroidism. J Evid Based Dent Pract.
2015 15(3):137–139.
307. Emerson CH. Pineal gland. Britannica. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/science/pineal-gland.
308. Luke J. Fluoride deposition in the aged human pineal gland. Caries Res. 2001 35(2):125–128.
309. Luke JA. The effect of fluoride on the physiology of the pineal gland [dissertation]. Guildford, England: University of Surrey 1997.
310. Schlesinger ER, Overton DE, Chase HC, Cantwell KT. Newburgh-Kingston caries-fluorine study. XIII. Pediatric findings after ten years.
J Am Dent Assoc. 1956 52(3):296–306.
311. US Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control. Update of fluoride/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
allegation. Dental Disease Prevention Activity. Atlanta, Georgia 1987.
312. Challacombe SJ. Does fluoridation harm immune function? Community Dent Health. 1996 13(Suppl 2):69–71.
313. World Health Organization. Fluorine and fluorides: environmental health criteria 36. Geneva, Switzerland 1984.
314. Schlesinger E. Health studies in areas of the USA with controlled water fluoridation. Fluorides and Human Health. Geneva, Switzerland 1970.
p. 305–310.
315. Drummond GWB, Takeshita WM, de Castro GM, et al. Could fluoride be considered a genotoxic chemical agent in vivo? A systematic review
with meta-analysis. Int J Environ Health Res. 2024 34(3):1328–1341.
316. Lowry R, Steen N, Rankin J. Water fluoridation, stillbirths, and congenital abnormalities. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003 57(7):499–500.
317. National Down Syndrome Society. About down syndrome. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://ndss.org/about.
318. Needleman HL, Pueschel SM, Rothman KJ. Fluoridation and the occurrence of Down’s syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1974 291(16):821–823.
319. Erickson JD. Down syndrome, water fluoridation, and maternal age. Teratology. 1980 21(2):177–180.
320. Knox EG, Armstrong E, Lancashire R. Fluoridation and the prevalence of congenital malformations. Community Med. 1980 2(3):190–194.
321. Duan Q, Jiao J, Chen X, Wang X. Association between water fluoride and the level of children’s intelligence: a dose-response meta-analysis.
Public Health. 2018 154:87–97.
322. Broadbent JM, Thomson WM, Ramrakha S, et al. Community water fluoridation and intelligence: prospective study in New Zealand.
Am J Public Health. 2015 105(1):72–76.
323. Green R, Lanphear B, Hornung R, et al. Association between maternal fluoride exposure during pregnancy and iq scores in offspring in Canada.
JAMA Pediatr. 2019 173(10):940–948.
324. Ibarluzea J, Gallastegi M, Santa-Marina L, et al. Prenatal exposure to fluoride and neuropsychological development in early childhood: 1-to 4
years old children. Environ Res. 2022 207:112181.
325. Dewey D, England-Mason G, Ntanda H, et al. Fluoride exposure during pregnancy from a community water supply is associated with executive
function in preschool children: a prospective ecological cohort study. Sci Total Environ. 2023 891:164322.
326. Do LG, Spencer AJ, Sawyer A, et al. Early childhood exposures to fluorides and child behavioral development and executive function: a
population-based longitudinal study. J Dent Res. 2023 102(1):28–36.
327. Veneri F, Vinceti M, Generali L, et al. Fluoride exposure and cognitive neurodevelopment: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.
Environ Res. 2023 221:115239.
328. Gopu BP, Azevedo LB, Duckworth RM, et al. The relationship between fluoride exposure and cognitive outcomes from gestation to
adulthood-a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 20(1).
329. Miranda GHN, Alvarenga MOP, Ferreira MKM, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between fluoride exposure and
neurological disorders. Sci Rep. 2021 11(1):22659.
330. Canadian Fluoridation Society. Community water fluoridation programs: a health technology assessment—review of dental caries and other
health outcomes. CADTH Technology Review 2019.
331. Aggeborn L, Ohman M. The effects of fluoride in drinking water. J Political Econ. 2021 129(2):465–491.
332. Lin YY, Hsu WY, Yen CE, Hu SW. Association of dental fluorosis and urinary fluoride with intelligence among schoolchildren. Children. (Basel)
2023 10(6):987.
333. Till C, Green R, Flora D, et al. Fluoride exposure from infant formula and child IQ in a Canadian birth cohort. Environ Int. 2020 134:105315.
334. Farmus L, Till C, Green R, et al. Critical windows of fluoride neurotoxicity in Canadian children. Environ Res. 2021 200:111315.
335. Farmus L, Till C, Green R, et al. ADDENDUM: critical windows of fluoride neurotoxicity in Canadian children. Environ Res. 2022 215(Pt. 3).
336. Ibarluzea J, Subiza-Perez M, Arregi A, et al. Association of maternal prenatal urinary fluoride levels with ADHD symptoms in childhood.
Environ Res. 2023 235:116705.
References
300. Iamandii I, De Pasquale L, Giannone ME, et al. Does fluoride exposure affect thyroid function? A systematic review and dose-response
meta-analysis. Environ Res. 2024 242:117759.
301. National Toxicology Program. NTP monograph on the state of the science concerning fluoride exposure and neurodevelopment and cognition:
a systematic review. NTP Monogr. 2024 Aug (8):NTP-MGRAPH-8.
302. Haschek WM, Rousseaux CG. Handbook of toxicologic pathology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press 1991.
303. Griebel-Thompson AK, Sands S, Chollet-Hinton L, et al. A scoping review of iodine and fluoride in pregnancy in relation to maternal thyroid
function and offspring neurodevelopment. Adv Nutr. 2023 14(2):317–338.
304. Malin AJ, Riddell J, McCague H, Till C. Fluoride exposure and thyroid function among adults living in Canada: effect modification by iodine
status. Environ Int. 2018 121(Pt 1):667-674.
305. Goodman CV, Hall M, Green R, et al. Iodine status modifies the association between fluoride exposure in pregnancy and preschool boys’
intelligence. Nutrients. 2022 14(14):2920.
306. Warren JJ, Saraiva MC. No evidence supports the claim that water fluoridation causes hypothyroidism. J Evid Based Dent Pract.
2015 15(3):137–139.
307. Emerson CH. Pineal gland. Britannica. Accessed March 21, 2025. https://www.britannica.com/science/pineal-gland.
308. Luke J. Fluoride deposition in the aged human pineal gland. Caries Res. 2001 35(2):125–128.
309. Luke JA. The effect of fluoride on the physiology of the pineal gland [dissertation]. Guildford, England: University of Surrey 1997.
310. Schlesinger ER, Overton DE, Chase HC, Cantwell KT. Newburgh-Kingston caries-fluorine study. XIII. Pediatric findings after ten years.
J Am Dent Assoc. 1956 52(3):296–306.
311. US Department of Health and Human Services. Centers for Disease Control. Update of fluoride/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
allegation. Dental Disease Prevention Activity. Atlanta, Georgia 1987.
312. Challacombe SJ. Does fluoridation harm immune function? Community Dent Health. 1996 13(Suppl 2):69–71.
313. World Health Organization. Fluorine and fluorides: environmental health criteria 36. Geneva, Switzerland 1984.
314. Schlesinger E. Health studies in areas of the USA with controlled water fluoridation. Fluorides and Human Health. Geneva, Switzerland 1970.
p. 305–310.
315. Drummond GWB, Takeshita WM, de Castro GM, et al. Could fluoride be considered a genotoxic chemical agent in vivo? A systematic review
with meta-analysis. Int J Environ Health Res. 2024 34(3):1328–1341.
316. Lowry R, Steen N, Rankin J. Water fluoridation, stillbirths, and congenital abnormalities. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2003 57(7):499–500.
317. National Down Syndrome Society. About down syndrome. Accessed March 24, 2025. https://ndss.org/about.
318. Needleman HL, Pueschel SM, Rothman KJ. Fluoridation and the occurrence of Down’s syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1974 291(16):821–823.
319. Erickson JD. Down syndrome, water fluoridation, and maternal age. Teratology. 1980 21(2):177–180.
320. Knox EG, Armstrong E, Lancashire R. Fluoridation and the prevalence of congenital malformations. Community Med. 1980 2(3):190–194.
321. Duan Q, Jiao J, Chen X, Wang X. Association between water fluoride and the level of children’s intelligence: a dose-response meta-analysis.
Public Health. 2018 154:87–97.
322. Broadbent JM, Thomson WM, Ramrakha S, et al. Community water fluoridation and intelligence: prospective study in New Zealand.
Am J Public Health. 2015 105(1):72–76.
323. Green R, Lanphear B, Hornung R, et al. Association between maternal fluoride exposure during pregnancy and iq scores in offspring in Canada.
JAMA Pediatr. 2019 173(10):940–948.
324. Ibarluzea J, Gallastegi M, Santa-Marina L, et al. Prenatal exposure to fluoride and neuropsychological development in early childhood: 1-to 4
years old children. Environ Res. 2022 207:112181.
325. Dewey D, England-Mason G, Ntanda H, et al. Fluoride exposure during pregnancy from a community water supply is associated with executive
function in preschool children: a prospective ecological cohort study. Sci Total Environ. 2023 891:164322.
326. Do LG, Spencer AJ, Sawyer A, et al. Early childhood exposures to fluorides and child behavioral development and executive function: a
population-based longitudinal study. J Dent Res. 2023 102(1):28–36.
327. Veneri F, Vinceti M, Generali L, et al. Fluoride exposure and cognitive neurodevelopment: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis.
Environ Res. 2023 221:115239.
328. Gopu BP, Azevedo LB, Duckworth RM, et al. The relationship between fluoride exposure and cognitive outcomes from gestation to
adulthood-a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 20(1).
329. Miranda GHN, Alvarenga MOP, Ferreira MKM, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between fluoride exposure and
neurological disorders. Sci Rep. 2021 11(1):22659.
330. Canadian Fluoridation Society. Community water fluoridation programs: a health technology assessment—review of dental caries and other
health outcomes. CADTH Technology Review 2019.
331. Aggeborn L, Ohman M. The effects of fluoride in drinking water. J Political Econ. 2021 129(2):465–491.
332. Lin YY, Hsu WY, Yen CE, Hu SW. Association of dental fluorosis and urinary fluoride with intelligence among schoolchildren. Children. (Basel)
2023 10(6):987.
333. Till C, Green R, Flora D, et al. Fluoride exposure from infant formula and child IQ in a Canadian birth cohort. Environ Int. 2020 134:105315.
334. Farmus L, Till C, Green R, et al. Critical windows of fluoride neurotoxicity in Canadian children. Environ Res. 2021 200:111315.
335. Farmus L, Till C, Green R, et al. ADDENDUM: critical windows of fluoride neurotoxicity in Canadian children. Environ Res. 2022 215(Pt. 3).
336. Ibarluzea J, Subiza-Perez M, Arregi A, et al. Association of maternal prenatal urinary fluoride levels with ADHD symptoms in childhood.
Environ Res. 2023 235:116705.
